![]() However, the mechanisms of acquisition and diffusion of these differing techniques are still not fully understood. ![]() Complex techniques in nut-cracking involving the use of a wedge stone are also plausible examples of cumulative culture. Cumulative innovation in techniques is also suggested from observational and archaeological studies on chimpanzee nut-cracking, –. The use of a tool set in this context is thought to improve harvesting efficiency and prey exploitation over longer periods of time. In addition, Goualougo chimpanzees in the Congo employ a tool set when targeting army ant nests they use a woody tool to perforate the nest and then a more slender probing tool or wand to dip for the ants. Although tool length does to some extent explain these differences, variations in technique cannot solely be accounted for by tool length attributes alone –. Chimpanzees in Taï, Côte d'Ivoire, rely predominantly on the “direct mouthing” technique, while in Gombe, Tanzania, the majority of chimpanzees demonstrate the “pull-through” technique, although Bossou chimpanzees in Guinea exhibit both. ![]() For example, when ant-dipping and gathering army ants ( Dorylus sp.) off a tool, chimpanzees may exhibit one of two techniques: “direct mouthing” which involves the chimpanzee passing the tool through its lips, and “pull-through” which requires the chimpanzee to swipe the length of or a portion of the wand with its free hand. Ĭhimpanzees, one of our closest living relatives, display in the wild not only an array of different tool-use types but also tool-use techniques that vary among communities –. In humans, imitation and teaching are viewed as the key processes underlying cumulative cultural evolution and some researchers argue that these social learning mechanisms are absent or rare in non-human cultures –. This process depends upon faithful, high fidelity social transmission of improved, more efficient techniques. However, many argue that humans are still unique in their capacity for cumulative cultural evolution, with successive generations building on earlier achievements –. Candidate examples of culture across the animal kingdom have been accumulating incrementally over the course of the past two decades –. Putative cultural variants are by definition independent of environmental or genetic differences and are maintained via social learning mechanisms –. Yamamoto) ( The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Ĭompeting interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.Ĭulture in non-human animals is one of the hottest and most debated questions within the social and biological sciences. Matsuzawa) ( and from Japan Society for the promotion of Science (JSPS: 18-3451, 21-9340, 2280005767 to S. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.įunding: The present study was financially supported by grants-in-aid from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (MEXT: 20002001, 24000001, and MEXT special grant “Human Evolution” to T. Received: JAccepted: JanuPublished: January 30, 2013Ĭopyright: © 2013 Yamamoto et al. Illinois State University, United States of America Citation: Yamamoto S, Humle T, Tanaka M (2013) Basis for Cumulative Cultural Evolution in Chimpanzees: Social Learning of a More Efficient Tool-Use Technique. ![]()
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